Lands managed for grazing by BLM have a wide range of climate, landforms, vegetation types, and social and economic settings.

Cattle operations are owned by families or corporations whose primary business is to raise cattle (cows and calves) and grow hay and grain which they periodically sell. Larger operations employ either seasonal or permanent hired hands to assist in the operation of the ranch.

Most of the cattle ranches using public lands are cow/calf operations. That is, the rancher has a base herd of cattle, the majority of which are cows (bulls are also included in the herd). The primary purpose of the range cow is to produce a calf. Calves produced and weaned from the herd in any one year are called the calf crop. This crop is usually expressed as a percentage. For example, a herd of 100 cows that weaned 70 calves would equate to a 70 percent calf crop. A "weaning weight" refers to the weight of a calf at weaning time. For both percent of calf-crop weaned and weaning weight, the higher they are, the more revenue the producer gains.

A variation from the cow/calf operations are stocker/yearling operations where weaned calves and/or yearlings are grazed on private and public lands. The income comes entirely from the difference in the purchase price of the weaned calf and the increased weight gain prior to sale. Stocker operations don't have a base herd. They purchase weaned calves or yearlings at the beginning of the grazing season and sell them at the end of the grazing season. With reference to BLM grazing permits, stocker operations generally lease base property and sell the forage crop that they do not need for pasture or overwinter hay. Stocker operations generally lease base property because they do not maintain a base herd and therefore do not need land for maintaining a herd through the winter when they are not on public lands.

And finally, some ranchers have a combination cow/calf and stocker/yearling operation.

The size of a ranching operation can be expressed by the number of livestock run on a year-round basis. The majority of the public land cattle operations run between 100 to 500 head of livestock. Ranchers running less than 200 head usually have another source of income (e.g., another job). Operations over 500 head are considered large. Many of the larger operations run 1,500 to 3,000 head and a few run up to 7,000.

Sheep ranches that use federal lands either: operate almost entirely on private lands, grazing only on public range for a short period in summer; or, operate on private land during late spring and early fall, utilizing public lands for the remaining two-thirds to three-fourths of the year; or, most typically, operate almost entirely on federal lands. The latter type of operation uses private lands mostly for shipping and handling animals and only occasionally grazes weaned lambs on private pasture for later market sales. The typical sheep operation averages about 2,500 stock sheep per management unit, ranging in size from 1,800 to 3,000 head per unit. In the typical public land sheep operation, sheep either migrate or are trailed to and from seasonal ranges, utilizing trained herders to watch and control sheep movements. In some cases, sheep are trucked to and from seasonal ranges depending upon the distances involved. Income to sheep operations occurs when weaned lambs, culled ewes and/or wool is sold in either the spring or the fall. Costs include grazing fees, herder's salaries, water hauling costs and trucking costs, and cost to rent pasture for the time the sheep are not on federal lands.

An "allotment" is an area of federal land designated and managed for grazing of livestock. Allotments range from very small (20 acres) to huge (1.5 million acres). Most often the smallest allotments (20-500 acres) are surrounded by rancher-owned private land; and conversely, the largest allotments contain only occasional interspersions of private land (such as along or surrounding the most reliable water sources). It is difficult to characterize an "average size" for BLM allotments. In 1992, the General Accounting Office (GAO) examined BLM's data. They summed and averaged the acreage of the 500 largest allotments managed by BLM and found they averaged about 152,000 acres. They also summed and averaged the acreage of the 500 smallest allotments managed by BLM and found they averaged 26 acres. In New Mexico and Arizona, State Trust Lands are intermingled together with public lands and used together as one operation on a significant number of allotments. The rancher either owns or leases the private, leases the state, and gets a BLM and/or USFS permit for the federal lands. All these lands together (public, state and private) are referred to as the "ranch." Carrying capacities on public, state, and private lands are relatively low. The result is large ranches with few livestock.

Privately owned land or water used in conjunction with an allotment is called base property. A ranch's year round operation consists of private lands or waters that are recognized by BLM as base property and one or more allotments. Land base property can range from several hundred to several thousands of acres. Usually, it contains the ranch headquarters, outbuildings (e.g., barns, equipment sheds), and facilities to handle livestock (e.g., corrals, sorting corrals, branding facilities, "doctoring" pens). Often is subdivided into fields or pastures where the livestock can forage or be fed during the winter. Typically, livestock forage (hay) is grown on the property to provide feed for the livestock when they are not on the public lands. Water base property is privately owned water that is suitable and available for consumption by livestock. Often, this consists of simply a well or spring that is located on a small parcel (5-20 acres) surrounded by public lands. The area that stock can range to forage and return to that water is the base property's "service area" and this becomes the allotment for which the permit is issued.

Although all western ranching has commonality, ranch operations in the Great Basin, Columbia Basin, Colorado Plateau and the Rockies/ High Plains - the temperate regions - differ from those in the Coastal and Desert Southwest areas - the subtropical and Mediterranean regions depending on the type of operation, the climate and local tradition. One thing that always must be kept in mind is that relative to the east, the west has a very dry climate. Plants require water, soil and sunlight to grow. The west has plenty of soil and sunlight, but water is limited.

Most of the west is within the temperate region. The temperate region's climate is typified by cold snowy winters and warm dry summers. Most moisture is received primarily in the winter and spring and comes in the form of snow. Moisture in the summer is received as erratic thunderstorms. Typically, plants start to grow in early March and stop growing by early October.

Most of the area contains perennial plant communities. However, large areas are now dominated by annuals.

The desert Southwest, located in the subtropical region, is what is commonly called the "Hot Desert Biome" (or Region). In this region are three distinct deserts. The northwestern desert, the Mojave, receives rain primarily in the winter. In between the Mojave and the Chihuahuan deserts, the Sonoran Desert receives both winter and summer rainfall. Winter rainfall is of longer duration and lower intensity than the thunderstorms that typify summer rainfall. The dual-season rainfall provides the Sonoran with a greater variety of plants than either of the two other hot deserts. The Chihuahuan Desert, the easternmost, generally receives rainfall in the summer. Precipitation usually comes in the form of high-intensity thunderstorms. Because the Chihuahuan Desert lies at a higher elevation than the other two hot deserts, its winters are cooler. The Chihuahuan Desert's higher rainfall and different soil type promote the growth of more grasses than are found in the other two deserts.

Ephemeral rangelands occur in this region in addition to perennial ranges. Ephemeral rangelands means areas of the Hot Desert Region that do not consistently produce enough forage to sustain a livestock operation but may briefly produce unusual volumes of forage to accommodate livestock grazing. In this region, BLM issues permits for use of ephemeral range also, however, they are conditioned upon forage availability which is uncertain from year to year.

Most of California is within the Mediterranean region. This climate is typfied by hot dry summers, and cool wet winters. Precipitation is received mostly as rain in the winter. Thunderstorms are uncommon. It receives significantly more moisture annually, than do the subtropical or temperate regions.

Below is described typical seasonal activities for cattle and sheep operations in the temperate region and how these differ in the subtropical and Mediterranean regions.

Spring/Early Summer (March to mid-June): In March, the mother cows give birth to calves on either the rancher's private land, or on the allotment. Ideally, the majority of the cows have calved by late March, if not, calving continues into early spring. Some of the cows (about 5 to 25 percent depending on the breeding practices of the rancher) will not have calves.

Generally during this period, loans are secured for operating capital during the upcoming year.

Ranchers who keep individual records for each cow and calf then give each calf a number (eartag) when it is born to identify that calf with its mother. With production and health records, the rancher knows which cows are making him money. Non-productive cattle are culled and sold, or, the rancher may feed them for another year with no return on his investment and gamble that they will have a calf the next year. Shortly after birth the rancher vaccinates the calves for one or more diseases, brands the calves, and castrates the bull calves (steers).

In early April, livestock are moved from the base property to the allotment(s). Based on BLM-determined "range readiness" (appropriate soil dryness and stage of forage growth) the rancher moves his cattle into the pasture prescribed in his permit or lease, typically beginning around April 16th. Depending on the size of the herd, this can be done in one day or it may be done over several weeks. Also at this time, ranchers fertilize hay fields and in late spring begin irrigation on private land hay fields.

In early June, bulls are put with the cows (cattle have a 9-month gestation period). Breeding season, ideally, is 30 to 60 days. When the bulls are not with the cows, they are kept in separate pastures on private land.

Summer (mid-June to late August): Herding cattle between pastures occurs during this time on allotments that have developed grazing systems. Within the prescribed pastures, some ranchers move livestock to ensure fresh forage for the cattle. Generally, the summer pasture(s) is higher in elevation. For some operations, this may include permitted use on the national forests. Also during these months the rancher irrigates his hay meadows, plants his dryland grain crops, and harvests ("puts up") hay that he will use for winter cattle feed. In late summer, grain is harvested - some is sold and the rest retained for livestock feed or seed for next year's crop.

Fall (September to mid-November): Riders or cold weather drive the cattle to lower elevation pastures of the allotment. Around October 15 (typically--the "off-date" can vary depending on the permit), the rancher moves his cattle from the public land allotment to pastures and grain fields on his private land. The cattle will graze here until around mid-November when the rancher will wean the calves from the mother cows.

Late Fall/Winter (mid November to late February): If provided by the permit, cattle can remain on lower elevation pastures of the allotment. If not, cattle are moved to private pasture on the base lands. When nutrition of pasture forage declines in late fall, cattle are fed the hay that was "put up" in the summer to maintain the cattle in good condition during their winter pregnancy.

Calves are weaned, then sold as stockers or used as replacement heifers. Older animals (e.g., cattle without calves, older bulls) are sold at this time. Equipment is repaired. After the sale of the grain and calves, the rancher pays back the operating loan and renegotiates a new operating loan with a financial institution for the upcoming year. Any remaining money is used to pay living expenses for the family for the next year, to make the annual payment on the interest and principle on the ranch property loan, to purchase new and replacement machinery and equipment, and to pay other expenses.

In late winter, the rancher submits an application, based on his permit, which describes how he wishes to graze the public land allotment the next spring, summer, and fall (reflecting considerations such as his herd size, weather, and growing conditions). BLM coordinates the annual use with the rancher and if there is agreement, he pays the grazing fee and thereby receives his annual grazing authorization.

Sheep Operations in the Temperate Region

Spring: This often is the most critical and busy time of year for the sheep rancher. In early April, the sheep are trailed or trucked to low elevation sagebrush/grasslands which provide early spring forage and topographically protected areas for the ewes to give birth. Although some operations have privately owned spring range, usually they are on federal lands. Sheep are sheared prior to lambing, providing the wool product portion of income. Because lambs are fragile, death loss due to weather and/or predators is of major concern and herds are watched closely. Lamb death losses due to predators can range from 5 to10 percent during this time of year. The first month to six weeks following lambing is the most critical for the sheep rancher. Because range growth is not well advanced in April, supplemental feeding may be required, particularly on private land operations.

Summer: Sheep operations which have private spring range remain there until late June or early July. Those operations entirely on public lands will move their sheep to spring ranges in early May. Both types of operations will move their sheep to summer ranges at higher elevations in late June or early July. Fresh green forage is available here - forage at lower elevations is now drying out. The sheep are usually divided into groups or herds of roughly 1,000 ewes and their lambs for easier control and management at this time of year. These high elevation summer ranges are almost exclusively under the management of the national forest system but some occur on BLM land too.

Fall: The sheep are moved to lower elevation ranges in late September to escape early frost and snow, and the lambs and ewes are selected from the herd for marketing. For some operations, this may be privately owned range. More typically, lambs and ewes are sold directly off the public range at this time of year. It is during this late fall time period that the condition of the herd is evaluated, replacement ewes are selected, and the basic breeding herd is established for another year. The breeding ewes, the replacement lambs, and the few lambs to be sold later are then moved onto lower elevation fall ranges on public lands or to open fields on private land. The herd will remain there until they are moved onto public winter ranges around the first of November. The operating herd now contains the ewes and replacement lambs from two and sometimes three summer bands, comprising an efficient winter band of around 2,500 head.

Winter: The breeding season begins in late November or early December and lasts about 2 months. Except during this period, the rams are kept separately from the ewes on private ranges. During winter months, sheep graze on federal land desert shrub ranges (winter ranges). Usually, water and grass is scarce on the desert shrub vegetation types, making them unsuitable as cattle summer range. They do have protein rich shrubs that make high quality forage for sheep. The sheep get their water from light snowfall or it is hauled to them by the herder. Sometime, short periods of deep snow cover the forage and the sheep are fed supplements during these emergency situations. Activities during the winter months center around trucking or trailing sheep to winter ranges, herding and trailing the sheep herds while on the winter range, moving and supplying the sheep herders and their camps, and hauling water and supplemental feed as necessary. Usually, two herders manage the winter herd and move camp, with an occasional assist from the operator. Predator control is also part of the winter sheep operation. Death losses to predators during this time of year, however, is usually minimal.

Environmental factors are generally outside the control of individual operators. Among the factors that contribute to the risk of livestock operators are: severe climactic conditions such as drought or extended wet periods, severe winter storms, fire, weed infestations, predators, and disease.

Drought conditions, fire, and weed infestations can reduce the amount of available forage for livestock. Severe winter storms can kill cattle, and if occurring during calving season, can seriously reduce the calf crop. Weeds can also be toxic to cattle. Disease within a herd can also seriously affect production levels. Predators such as coyotes prey on calves and weakened cattle. Although management policies exists in most states to assist livestock producers in dealing with predator-caused losses, this issue is being increasingly scrutinized by the public. Public sentiment against killing predators to protect livestock herds is increasing in some areas of the country and affecting the ability of operators to deal with predator-caused losses.

Other Socio-Economic Factors Now Affecting Ranch Operations

The economics and social framework of livestock operations has been affected by other factors irrespective of FLPMA, and these are described below.

Cattle prices: Livestock producers operate in a competitive environment in which they are unable to control the price at which they sell their product. They must sell their product at the going rate. Cattle prices fluctuate according to a complex phenomenon referred to as the cattle cycle. Cattle cycles run on 10- to 12-year intervals and are marked by high prices at one end of the cycle and low prices at the other end of the cycle. Cattle cycles have been measured and well-documented by industry experts for at least 100 years. Significant fluctuations in cattle numbers B from oversupply to undersupply B are a major feature of cattle cycles.

Interest rates: Interest rates charged by banks for loans are another factor outside the control of cattle operators. Higher interest rates obviously raise the cost of doing business. This may or may not be a significant issue for any particular operator, depending on the rate level and whether cattle prices are high or low. The higher cattle prices are, the better able operators can absorb higher interest rates. Higher rates, combined with low cattle prices, can cause serious economic hardship.

Farm machinery and supplies: The constantly increasing cost of fuel, machinery, equipment, veterinarian services, and other production-related items along with the often poor market prices for cattle have had a significant negative impact on the business of ranching for many years. Many ranching businesses have been operating on a very thin margin of profit for so many years that any major incident that would significantly increase production costs may lead to liquidation of those businesses.

Domestic and international import-export policies: Import-export policies with respect to beef also influence the stability and profitability of the entire cattle industry. These policies, whether domestic or foreign, can affect both the demand and supply of beef in the U.S. For example, tariffs placed on U.S. beef by other countries to protect foreign beef producers can reduce international demand for U.S. beef. Another example would be an import quota that might be established in the U.S. This would have the effect of limiting imports to the U.S., thus giving some level of protection to domestic producers.

Technological change: Technological change has tended to favor concentration of production with larger and fewer operations. Although the pace of technological change cannot be controlled by an individual operator, decisions on how to incorporate technological change within the operation are within the realm of the operator.

Urbanization/urban sprawl into rural areas: Population growth in some areas of the Western U.S. is increasing the demand for conversion of ranches to urban and residential developments. This, in turn, is driving up land prices, making it harder for ranchers to purchase land to expand their operations. It is also encouraging ranch owners to sell their valuable lands and get out of such a risky business as cattle raising. It should be noted that sprawl into rural areas is not just a western phenomenon B it is occurring all over the U.S. and reflects changing social values, whereby people are seeking more rural conditions in which to live. Another aspect to this issue is that, as people move into previously unpopulated areas of the Western U.S., they are demanding a greater voice in how public lands should be managed. This issue is related to the issue of multiple-use management discussed above.

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